RUSSIA-DPRK COOPERATION IN THE FAR EAST: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMORSKY REGION’S INTERNATIONAL  IMAGE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC

Peter Yu. Samoylenko 

Far Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok

Russian Society of Political Scientists, Moscow

Abstract:The article examines the features and prospects for creation  of the Russian Far East international logistics image when the role of transit logistics in the Eurasian direction through the continent and sea ports of the easternmost Russian mega-region is constantly growing.  It is noted that the creation of international transport image for the Russian Far East has both historical roots, prerequisites and modern drivers. In complex they include trends of strengthening the role of transit and spatial transport logistics in the Far East. We can see that, due to various political and economic reasons, during last several years Russia began to consider again as very important the regional cooperation with  North Korea (DPRK). Development of international and regional cooperation projects with the DPRK may not only contribute to bilateral relations, but also affect transit transport links with the Northeast Asian leading economies: China, Republic of Korea and Japan. As well, the author makes his own opinion about prospects of regional cooperation in the Asia-Pacific. 

Keywords: “Pivot to the East” policy, Russian Far East, Asia-Pacific region, Northeast Asia, sanctions, international security, logistics, international image, transport, shipping, maritime education, technology, seaports, transport corridors, territory branding 

Background

Russia and the DPRK have historically been strategic partners in the Far East since the mid-1950s. The third participant of this coalition was China, traditionally close to both countries (with the exception of confrontation period with the the USSR in 1960-1970) [16].

Due to its geographical neighborhood, Primorsky Region has always been maximally involved in cooperation with Korean Peninsula. The total border between Russia and North Korea is 39.4 km long. Of these, 17.3 km run along the Tumannaya (Tumangan) River, and 22.1 km is the maritime border in the Sea of ​​Japan.

Currently, we are able to see the revival of Russia-DPRK partnership, which has the chance to strengthen and reach a fundamentally new level.

As it is known, the chief aspect in inter-state cooperation issues may be expressed in most cases as  strategic and military-political. At the same time, regional cooperation also developed, although it was secondary by nature. 

In brief, the chronology of Russia-North Korea bilateral relations looks is as follows [12]. Democratic People’s Republic of Korea was founded on September 9, 1948. The USSR was the first to establish diplomatic relations with the new country on October 12, 1948. On March 17, 1949, the USSR and the DPRK signed an agreement on economic and cultural cooperation. Then, in 1956 – an agreement on cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear energy, in 1960 – an agreement on trade and navigation, in 1961 – bilateral treaty on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance. By 1990, the USSR accounted for 53.3% of the DPRK’s foreign trade. Trade turnover between the countries amounted to $2.2 billion.

After the USSR collapse, the relationships had to be rebuilt. In February, 2000, a new Russia-DPRK Treaty on friendship, good-neighborliness and cooperation was concluded. In 2008-2014, basing on Russian funds there have been renovated a 54 km long railway section from Khasan (Russia) to North Korea as well as port facilities in the port of Rajin. 

In 2014, Russia has approved the settlement of the DPRK’s debts on USSR loans (11 billion US dollars). In 2014, an agreement was also signed on the transition to rubles in mutual settlements. In February 2015, the Russia-DPRK Business Council was organized. Then, there have been concluded: 

• Agreement on cooperation in the field of electric power, 2015;
• Agreement on cooperation in the field of transport, education and science, 2018; 
• Agreement between the Russian company “Transtelecom” and the DPRK about installation of Internet connection within North Korean territory, 2017;  
• Agreement on construction of border road bridge across Tumangan River, 2024;
• Treaty about comprehensive strategic partnership, 2024 

Russian and North Korean ministers of foreign affairs and heads of states visited several times Moscow and Pyongyang, there were also summits in the Russian Far East. 

Economic relations between the countries are carried out through the Intergovernmental Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation. It was created in 1991, its first meeting was held in 1996, and the last one was on November 16, 2023.

In July 2000, Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Pyongyang. North Korean leader Kim Jong Il paid a return visit to  Moscow, St. Petersburg and Ulan-Ude in 2001. During this visit, the Moscow Declaration was signed, in which the parties confirmed their intention to help maintain stability and strengthen bilateral relations, primarily in the trade and economic sphere. In August 2002, Kim Jong-il made a four-day trip to the Far East. In Vladivostok, he met with President Vladimir Putin. In 2011, the head of the DPRK came to Russia again. At the Sosnovy Bor military garrison, near Ulan-Ude, he met with Russian President Dmitry Medvedev. The new head of the DPRK, Kim Jong-un, has visited Russia twice. In 2019, he came to Vladivostok, where he met with President Vladimir Putin. On September 13, 2023, a delegation of the Russian Federation and the DPRK with the heads of both countries passed through the Vostochny Cosmodrome in the Amur Region. In June 2024, Russian President Vladimir Putin went on a visit to the DPRK. In July 2023, a Russian delegation headed by Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu arrived in Pyongyang. He met with the head of North Korea, Kim Jong-un. In addition, Sergei Shoigu held talks with the Minister of the People’s Armed Forces of the DPRK Kang Sun Nam. In October 2023, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov visited North Korea. In January 2024, the head of the DPRK Foreign Ministry Choi Son Hee visited Moscow. She met with President Vladimir Putin and Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov. In June 2024, the media reported that 18 visits of officials at the level of deputy minister and above took place between the Russian Federation and the DPRK this year. This is the maximum number since Kim Jong-un became the leader of North Korea [12].

Thus, for today. the experience of more than 70 years of cooperation shows several significant trends in its development:

– Cooperation mainly concerns strategic aspects, military support, as well as consolidation of efforts in mutual foreign policy support [11]; 

– Issues of foreign trade and economic development are secondary in relation to political aspects. However, they look promising, especially in the context of Western sanctions against both countries [9];

– Regional bilateral cooperation is of great importance, the Far East became the location closely connected  with Russia-DPRK summits,  as well as individual economic projects, labor migration, etc. Through Primorye Region the foreign trade between two countries there has always been carried out [15]; 

– In view of above mentioned items, the development of Russia-DPRK cooperation can and should be based on historical “heredity”. 

Logistic projects

Logistic projects have traditionally been of great importance for Primorsky Region and North Korea. Some of them have not been fully implemented, but, nevertheless, contain promising initiatives and have not lost their relevance up to this day [6]. 

As we know, Primorye Region may be called a “logistic corridor” through which mainly transit export and import cargoes flow to China, DPRK and the Asia-Pacific [7].   

The idea of large international regional projects to link firmly Russia and North Korea appeared back in the 1990s.

Since 1988 the multinational (China, South Korea, Japan, USA, Mongolia) project for Tumangan Region’s development began to be discussed at the initiative of China. China Jilin Province borders with Russia and is separated from the Sea of Japan by 60 km of Russian territory. It was planned to create a free economic zone, covering the territory in the triangle of Rajin (DPRK), Hongchun (PRC) and the port of Posyet (Russia). If the start would be successful, later the preferential regime would have been expanded within the territory between  Chongjin (DPRK), Yanji (PRC) and Vladivostok (Russia). This initiative even received the unofficial name of the “golden triangle” [2].

Due to various objective circumstances the project was frozen  but has been revived in 1995, when in New York representatives of Russia, China, the DPRK, South Korea and Mongolia signed a package of agreements “On Assistance to the Economic Development of the Tumen River Basin”. 

It was proposed to form an international transport and logistics hub between East Asia and Europe, create a modern transport infrastructure and an export-oriented economy. Based on multilateral project North Korea put forward the idea to create a free trade and economic zone “Rajin-Sonbong”. As a result, the capacity of local DPRK ports’ cargo turnover was to increase in the future up to 100 million tons. However, these plans failed to be implemented. 

In 2008-2013 “Russian Railways” company jointly with North Korean side has carried out  the renovation and modernization of the railway between Russian border station Khasan and DPRK port Rajin [14]. In 2014-2025 South Korean companies (steel, shipping and transport) implemented several test deliveries of Russian coal to the ports of South Korea and China. However, since 2013, the project “Khasan-Rajin” has been suspended due to economic sanctions from the UN and  the United States against North Korea.     

The authorities of China’s Northeastern Jilin Province and the city of Hunchun have also put forward a plan to create international logistics and tourist zone along Tumangan River in the border region with Russia and the DPRK. The plan includes the construction of logistics warehouses as well as introduction of duty-free trade regime and visa-free entry regime in the tourist zone. The construction of the zone’s infrastructure is planned to be carried out jointly by the three countries participating in the project.

Today Yanji (capital of Korean Autonomous Region) is experiencing an economic boom. Thanks to border trade, the population is increasing and reached 400 thousand people. Thus, in these circumstances, “Tumangan project” may expand to the project involving North Korean plans in Rajin and Russian plans in Primorye to create  logistic centers and logistic corridors within the territories of these countries. 

Migration and economic cooperation

Migration cooperation between Primorye and DPRK from 1990s until 2010s was quite active, primarily in the import of labor from DPRK [4]. Later, after Russia’s joining UN sanctions, migration volumes decreased significantly. At present, in view of foreign policy situation and sanctions pressure on both countries it would have been logical if all earlier adopted bilateral restrictions on North Korea (including the use of labor force) would be lifted.  

Today, there may be identified five main categories of cargo flows in the Far East and northern provinces of China, important for determination of international trade corridors. 

 First –  Russian transportation towards the ports of Primorsky Region. This route is taken into account  but is not a main target because affects only the section (from Ussuriysk to Nakhodka) of total way  from China to Russian ports . 

Second – land cargo communication for both partners between Russia and China, mainly the export of raw and construction materials as well as  fertilizers. Transport corridor will help to regulate this flow, but will not create the reasons  for significant increase of foreign trade in this category (the potential by 2020 is up to 35 million tons per year).

Third – delivery of transit goods from China across Russian territory to other Asia-Pacific countries. There is a large potential for growth in trade turnover here. But if we plan to deliver transit goods from China through Russia to the Asia-Pacific it would be necessary to increase Russian highways and ports’ capacities and simplify the border regime and rules. 

(End of introductory fragment)